02856nas a2200205   4500008004100000245015400041210006900195300001200264490000700276520206400283653001402347653002902361653002702390653001602417653001202433100002202445700001902467700002602486856013802512       2004                        eng d00aLinear and threshold-dependent expression of secondary sexual traits in the same individual: insights from a horned beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)0 aLinear and thresholddependent expression of secondary sexual tra  a473-4800 v833 aElaborate horns or horn-like structures in male scarab beetles commonly scale with body size either (a) in a linear fashion with horn size increasing relatively faster than body size or (b) in a threshold-dependent, sigmoid fashion; that is, males smaller than a certain critical body size develop no or only rudimentary horns, whereas males larger than the threshold size express fully developed horns. The development of linear vs. sigmoid scaling relationships is thought to require fundamentally different regulatory mechanisms. Here we show that such disparate regulatory mechanisms may co-occur in the same individual. Large males of the south-east Asian Onthophagus  ( Proagoderus ) watanabei  (Ochi & Kon) (Scarabaeidae, Onthophagini) develop a pair of long, curved head horns as well as a single thoracic horn. We show that unlike paired head horns in a large number of Onthophagus  species, in O. watanabei  the relationship between head horns and body size is best explained by a linear model. Large males develop dispropor- tionately longer horns than small males, but the difference in relative horn sizes across the range of body sizes is small compared to other Onthophagus  species. However, the scaling relationship between the thoracic horn and body size is best explained by a strongly sigmoid model. Only males above a certain body size threshold express a thoracic horn and males smaller than this threshold express no horn at all. We found a significant positive correlation between head and thoracic horn length residuals, contrary to what would be expected if a resource allocation tradeoff during larval development would influence the length of both horn types. Our results suggest that the scaling rela- tionship between body size and horn length, and the developmental regulation underlying these scaling relation- ships, may be quite different for different horns, even though these horns may develop in the same individual. We discuss our results in the context of the developmental biology of secondary sexual traits in beetles.10aallometry10adevelopmental constraint10adevelopmental tradeoff10aOnthophagus10ascaling1 aMoczek, Armin, P.1 aBruhl, Carsten1 aKrell, Frank-Thorsten  uhttps://scarabnet.myspecies.info/linear-and-threshold-dependent-expression-secondary-sexual-traits-same-individual-insights-horned-be